AP Course

AP Chemistry

Updated for the AP Chemistry framework effective fall 2024, with particle models, quantitative reasoning, labs, quizzes, and practice problems.

Build general chemistry fluency through atomic structure, bonding, reactions, kinetics, equilibrium, acids and bases, thermodynamics, and electrochemistry.

Lessons

Moles and Molar MassMass Spectra of ElementsElemental Composition of Pure SubstancesComposition of MixturesAtomic Structure and Electron ConfigurationPhotoelectron SpectroscopyPeriodic TrendsValence Electrons and Ionic CompoundsTypes of Chemical BondsIntramolecular Force and Potential EnergyStructure of Ionic SolidsStructure of Metals and AlloysLewis DiagramsResonance and Formal ChargeVSEPR and HybridizationIntermolecular and Interparticle ForcesProperties of SolidsSolids, Liquids, and GasesIdeal Gas LawKinetic Molecular TheoryDeviation from Ideal Gas LawSolutions and MixturesRepresentations of SolutionsSeparation of Solutions and MixturesSolubilitySpectroscopy and the Electromagnetic SpectrumProperties of PhotonsBeer-Lambert LawIntroduction for ReactionsNet Ionic EquationsRepresentations of ReactionsPhysical and Chemical ChangesStoichiometryIntroduction to TitrationTypes of Chemical ReactionsIntroduction to Acid-Base ReactionsOxidation-Reduction (Redox) ReactionsReaction RatesIntroduction to Rate LawConcentration Changes over TimeElementary ReactionsCollision ModelReaction Energy ProfileIntroduction to Reaction MechanismsReaction Mechanism and Rate LawPre-Equilibrium ApproximationMultistep Reaction Energy ProfileCatalysisEndothermic and Exothermic ProcessesEnergy DiagramsHeat Transfer and Thermal EquilibriumHeat Capacity and CalorimetryEnergy of Phase ChangesIntroduction to Enthalpy of ReactionBond EnthalpiesEnthalpy of FormationHess’s LawIntroduction to EquilibriumDirection of Reversible ReactionsReaction Quotient and Equilibrium ConstantCalculating the Equilibrium ConstantMagnitude of the Equilibrium ConstantProperties of the Equilibrium ConstantCalculating Equilibrium ConcentrationsRepresentations of EquilibriumIntroduction to Le Châtelier’s PrincipleReaction Quotient and Le Châtelier’s PrincipleIntroduction to Solubility EquilibriaCommon-Ion EffectIntroduction to Acids and BasespH and pOH of Strong Acids and BasesWeak Acid and Base EquilibriaAcid-Base Reactions and BuffersAcid-Base TitrationsMolecular Structure of Acids and BasespH and pK_aProperties of BuffersHenderson-Hasselbalch EquationBuffer CapacitypH and SolubilityIntroduction to EntropyAbsolute Entropy and Entropy ChangeGibbs Free Energy and Thermodynamic FavorabilityThermodynamic and Kinetic ControlFree Energy and EquilibriumFree Energy of DissolutionCoupled ReactionsGalvanic (Voltaic) and Electrolytic CellsCell Potential and Free EnergyCell Potential Under Nonstandard ConditionsElectrolysis and Faraday’s Law

Quizzes

Practice Problems Equation practice, lab analysis, and FRQ-style reasoning resources can be added here.

AP Chemistry · Unit 9 · Topic 9.5

Free Energy and Equilibrium

Entropy, free energy, equilibrium, and electrochemical work provide compatible tests of thermodynamic favorability.

1. Topic Lens

Free Energy and Equilibrium is studied through thermodynamics and electrochemistry. Connect the system boundary, interacting parts, and measurable evidence before applying a formula.

\[\Delta G^\circ=-nFE^\circ\]

Chemical equation or molecular relation

\[Zn(s)+Cu^{2+}(aq)\rightarrow Zn^{2+}(aq)+Cu(s)\]

2. Why the Formula Works

The relationship is built from definitions and conservation reasoning:

Electrical work for n moles of electrons crossing potential E is nFE.
A spontaneous galvanic cell can deliver work, giving ΔG°=-nFE°.
Combining this with ΔG°=-RT lnK connects cell voltage to equilibrium.

\[E^\circ=\frac{RT}{nF}\ln K\]

3. Detailed Visual Model

Free Energy and Equilibrium: an original pixel-style model. Use it as a schematic, not a literal scale drawing.

4. Worked Example and Lab Link

A cell transfers 2 mol e⁻ at E°=1.10 V. Using F=96485 C/mol, estimate ΔG°.

Answer: ΔG°≈-2.12×10⁵ J/mol, or -212 kJ/mol.

Investigation idea: Construct safe microscale galvanic cells with several metal pairs and compare measured and predicted voltage.

Common trap: Positive E° pairs with negative ΔG° for the reaction as written; it says nothing about how fast the reaction occurs.

Checkpoint · Topic 9.5

Explain how free energy and equilibrium supports or limits this conclusion: ΔG°≈-2.12×10⁵ J/mol, or -212 kJ/mol.

Official curriculum reference: College Board AP Chemistry course page. The explanation and worked example are independently written for this study site.