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AP Course

AP Precalculus

Study nine focused AP Precalculus units through topic lessons, original graph examples, quizzes, and practice sets.

Follow the College Board topic sequence across polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, polar, parametric, vector, and matrix functions.

Lessons
Change in TandemRates of ChangeRates of Change in Linear and Quadratic FunctionsPolynomial Functions and Rates of ChangePolynomial Functions and Complex ZerosPolynomial Functions and End BehaviorRational Functions and End BehaviorRational Functions and ZerosRational Functions and Vertical AsymptotesRational Functions and HolesEquivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational ExpressionsTransformations of FunctionsFunction Model Selection and Assumption ArticulationFunction Model Construction and ApplicationChange in Arithmetic and Geometric SequencesChange in Linear and Exponential FunctionsExponential FunctionsExponential Function ManipulationExponential Function Context and Data ModelingCompeting Function Model ValidationComposition of FunctionsInverse FunctionsLogarithmic ExpressionsInverses of Exponential FunctionsLogarithmic FunctionsLogarithmic Function ManipulationExponential and Logarithmic Equations and InequalitiesLogarithmic Function Context and Data ModelingSemi-log PlotsPeriodic PhenomenaSine, Cosine, and TangentSine and Cosine Function ValuesSine and Cosine Function GraphsSinusoidal FunctionsSinusoidal Function TransformationsSinusoidal Function Context and Data ModelingThe Tangent FunctionInverse Trigonometric FunctionsTrigonometric Equations and InequalitiesThe Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent FunctionsEquivalent Representations of Trigonometric FunctionsTrigonometry and Polar CoordinatesPolar Function GraphsRates of Change in Polar FunctionsParametric FunctionsParametric Functions Modeling Planar MotionParametric Functions and Rates of ChangeParametrically Defined Circles and LinesImplicitly Defined FunctionsConic SectionsParametrization of Implicitly Defined FunctionsVectorsVector-Valued FunctionsMatricesThe Inverse and Determinant of a MatrixLinear Transformations and MatricesMatrices as FunctionsMatrices Modeling Contexts
Quizzes
Practice Problems Open a unit to choose from 58 topic-aligned practice sets.

Unit 7 · Topic 4.5 · Optional

Implicitly Defined Functions

Interpret a two-variable equation as a set of solution points, separate that relation into function branches when possible, and describe how nearby coordinates vary together.

Learning Goals

  • Distinguish implicit equations from explicit function formulas.
  • Determine whether an ordered pair belongs to an implicitly defined graph.
  • Construct a graph by finding solutions to a two-variable equation.
  • Solve for one variable to identify one or more function branches.
  • Interpret coordinate-change ratios along an implicit curve.

1. An Equation Defines a Set of Points

An implicit relation is often written

\[F(x,y)=0.\]

Its graph is the set of every ordered pair \((x,y)\) that makes the equation true. The equation relates x and y without necessarily isolating either variable as the output of a function.

2. Explicit and Implicit Forms

FormExampleInterpretation
Explicit\(y=2x+1\)One y-output is stated directly for each allowed x
Implicit\(x^2+y^2=25\)x and y are constrained together
Equivalent implicit form\(2x-y+1=0\)The same line as \(y=2x+1\)

An equation's appearance alone does not decide whether its graph is one function of x; solve or apply the vertical-line test.

3. Test Candidate Points by Substitution

For \(x^2+y^2=25\), substitute both coordinates:

PointCheckOn the graph?
\((3,4)\)\(3^2+4^2=25\)Yes
\((-5,0)\)\((-5)^2+0^2=25\)Yes
\((4,4)\)\(4^2+4^2=32\)No

One true point supports a graph but does not determine the complete curve. Many solutions are needed to reveal its shape.

4. Build a Solution Table

Choose x-values and solve \(y^2=25-x^2\):

\(x\)\(y^2\)Real y-values
\(-5\)\(0\)\(0\)
\(-4\)\(9\)\(\pm3\)
\(0\)\(25\)\(\pm5\)
\(3\)\(16\)\(\pm4\)
\(5\)\(0\)\(0\)

When \(|x|>5\), \(25-x^2<0\), so no real y-value exists.

5. The Complete Implicit Graph

Implicitly Defined Functions example graphThe circle fails the vertical-line test globally but splits into upper and lower function branches.
The circle fails the vertical-line test globally but splits into upper and lower function branches.

The solution points form a circle centered at the origin with radius 5. Its x-values and y-values both range from \(-5\) to \(5\).

6. Solve for y to Reveal Function Branches

\[x^2+y^2=25\quad\Longrightarrow\quad y^2=25-x^2\]
\[y=\sqrt{25-x^2}\quad\text{or}\quad y=-\sqrt{25-x^2},\qquad-5\le x\le5.\]

The positive square root is the upper semicircle and the negative square root is the lower semicircle. Together they reproduce the full implicit graph.

7. The Whole Circle Is Not One Function of x

At \(x=0\), the relation contains both \((0,5)\) and \((0,-5)\). One input has two y-values, so the complete circle fails the vertical-line test.

Each semicircle branch separately passes the test and defines y as a function of x on \([-5,5]\).

8. Solving for x Produces Different Branches

\[x=\sqrt{25-y^2}\quad\text{or}\quad x=-\sqrt{25-y^2},\qquad-5\le y\le5.\]

These formulas describe the right and left semicircles as functions of y. The useful branch depends on which variable the problem treats as the independent quantity.

9. Sometimes One Explicit Formula Captures Everything

For the implicit relation \(xy=6\), solve for y:

\[y=\frac{6}{x},\qquad x\ne0.\]

This one explicit function captures every real solution of the relation. Its two disconnected graph pieces come from the domain restriction, not from separate positive and negative square-root branches.

10. Sometimes Multiple Branches Are Essential

For \(y^2=x+1\),

\[y=\sqrt{x+1}\quad\text{or}\quad y=-\sqrt{x+1},\qquad x\ge-1.\]

The implicit graph is a sideways parabola. It is not one function of x, but its upper and lower halves are functions. Solving instead for x gives \(x=y^2-1\), which is one function of y.

11. A Branch May Be Only Part of the Relation

Writing \(y=\sqrt{25-x^2}\) without the negative branch removes every point below the x-axis. Similarly, choosing a contextual restriction such as \(y\ge0\) intentionally selects the upper branch.

Whenever a square root appears, state the sign choice and domain so the explicit representation matches the intended part of the implicit graph.

12. Use Nearby Points to Describe Covariation

For two graph points \((x_1,y_1)\) and \((x_2,y_2)\),

\[\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x}=\frac{y_2-y_1}{x_2-x_1}\]

compares how y changes as x changes. On the upper circle from \((0,5)\) to \((3,4)\), the ratio is \(-1/3\): x increases while y decreases. On the lower circle from \((0,-5)\) to \((3,-4)\), it is \(1/3\): both coordinates increase.

13. Interpret the Sign of a Coordinate Ratio

Ratio behaviorCoordinate behavior
\(\Delta y/\Delta x>0\)x and y change in the same direction
\(\Delta y/\Delta x<0\)One increases while the other decreases
\(\Delta y/\Delta x=0\)Horizontal change between the sampled points
\(\Delta x/\Delta y=0\)Vertical change between the sampled points

14. Horizontal and Vertical Local Behavior

Near the top of \(x^2+y^2=25\), the symmetric points

\[\left(-\varepsilon,\sqrt{25-\varepsilon^2}\right)\quad\text{and}\quad\left(\varepsilon,\sqrt{25-\varepsilon^2}\right)\]

have equal y-values, so \(\Delta y/\Delta x=0\), indicating horizontal behavior. Near the rightmost point,

\[\left(\sqrt{25-\varepsilon^2},-\varepsilon\right)\quad\text{and}\quad\left(\sqrt{25-\varepsilon^2},\varepsilon\right)\]

have equal x-values, so \(\Delta x/\Delta y=0\), indicating vertical behavior.

15. AP Workflow and Common Errors

  1. Read the equation as a condition on ordered pairs.
  2. Test useful points and determine real-value restrictions.
  3. Solve for one variable when that reveals graph branches.
  4. Plot all branches needed to reproduce the relation.
  5. Use the vertical-line test for a function of x or the horizontal-line test for a function of y.
  6. Preserve sign choices and domains.
  7. Use nearby solution points to interpret coordinate-change ratios.
  • Do not assume every two-variable equation defines one y-function.
  • Do not discard the negative square-root branch without a reason.
  • Do not graph points that fail the original equation.
  • Do not forget restrictions introduced by square roots or denominators.
  • Do not treat a ratio of coordinate changes as valid when its denominator is zero.

Key Takeaways

  • Analyze relations defined by equations in x and y that may describe multiple local function branches.
  • Core relationship: \(F(x,y)=0\)
  • Error check: Do not assume every equation in x and y defines y as a single function.
Checkpoint · Topic 4.5
  1. Determine whether \((2,3)\) lies on \(x^2+2y^2=22\).
  2. Solve \(x^2+y^2=16\) for y and state the domain of both branches.
  3. Explain why the complete circle is not one function of x while each semicircle is.
  4. Rewrite \(xy=-8\) explicitly as a function of x and state its domain.
  5. Use two nearby points on an implicit graph to explain what a negative \(\Delta y/\Delta x\) means.